Category Archives: Malaria

Entomological evaluation of vector control

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Kena, O. 2017. Entomological impact of combined and separate use of indoor residual spraying and long-lasting insecticidal nets for malaria prevention in Adami Tullu district, South-Central Ethiopia. PhD thesis. Addis Ababa University.

Indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) are the key frontline malaria prevention interventions in Ethiopia. Both target Anopheles arabiensis, the sole primary malaria vector. Universal coverage of both interventions has been promoted and there is a growing demand in combination of interventions for malaria control and elimination. However, available evidence is contradictory wether the combined intervention is better than either IRS or LLINs alone. To investigate whether IRS and LLINs combination provides added protective impact on An. arabiensis compared to either IRS or LLINs alone, a cluster randomized controlled trial was carried out in Adami Tullu district, south-central Ethiopia. Villages were randomly allocated to four study arms: IRS+LLINs, IRS, LLINs, and control. All households in the IRS+LLINs and LLINs arms were provided with LLINs (PermaNet 2.0) free of charge. Households in the IRS+LLINs and IRS arms were applied with propoxur before the main malaria transmission season in 2014 and 2015. Adult mosquitoes were collected in randomly selected villages in each arm using CDC light trap catch (LTC) set close to a sleeping person, pyrethrum spray catch (PSC), and artificial pit shelter (PIT), for measuring host-seeking density (HSD), indoor resting density (IRD), and outdoor resting density (ORD) of the anophelines. Human landing catch (HLC) was performed in selected villages to monitor the impact of the interventions on local mosquito biting behaviours (biting location, time and host preference).

Collected anophelines were identified to species by use of standard morphological keys and additional use of molecular methods to separate sibling species of the An. gambiae complex. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect malaria infections in mosquitoes and the sources of mosquito blood meals. Mean densities were compared using incidence rate ratio (IRR) calculated by negative binomial regression. Parity rate (percentage of parous females) was also determined by ovarial dissection. Human blood index (HBI) was expressed as the proportion of mosquitoes with human blood divided by the total number of blood-fed mosquitoes tested.

A total of 1786 female anophelines of four species (An. arabiensis, An. pharoensis, An. ziemanni and An. funestus s.l.) were collected over two transmission seasons during the intervention period (2014-2015). Anopheles numbers were highest in the control arm (41.3% of total) followed by LLINs (25.4%), IRS (18.0%), and IRS+LLINs (15.8%). In most of the vector parameters estimated, the impact of IRS and LLINs combined and separate interventions were significantly higher in communities that recieved the interventions (in experimental groups) compared with untreated communities (control group). The mean HSD of An. arabiensis in the IRS+LLINs arm was similar to the IRS arm (0.03 vs. 0.03/ house/LTC/night) but lower than the LLINs arm (0.03 vs. 0.10/house/LTC/night, p=0.07) and so was the difference in IRD and ORD between the IRS+LLINs compared to the IRS arm. However, both IRD and ORD of An. arabiensis were higher in LLINs compared to IRS+LLINs (p < 0.001 for indoors). Parity rate of An. arabiensis were similar among the intervention arms. None of the 1786 samples of four species tested by ELISA was positive for P.  falciparum and P. vivax CSP infection in all of the study arms. Anopheles arabiensis preferred mainly bovine and human hosts for blood meal sources with high HBI in the LLIN alone. Indoor resting habit of An. arabiensis was less impacted by LLINs alone intervention compared to IRS + LLINs or IRS alone.

In conclusion, the IRS+LLINs and the IRS alone each was similarly most effective against An. arabiensis as compared to the LLINs alone. The IRS+LLINs provided added impact on An. arabiensis compared to LLINs alone. The LLINs alone had poor impact on densities and human biting rates of An. arabiensis in this study setting.

You can download the thesis here: Oljira-Kenea-thesis

PhD in malaria entomology, and first and second opponents from Africa

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img_1060On Friday, January 27, Fekadu Massebo  defended his PhD thesis at the University of Bergen. This was a good defence with a thorough  scientific discussion. For the first time at the University of Bergen, the first and second opponents were African. This is a testimony to the emerging strength of African scientists.

The picture shows the candidate after the defence, the  opponents, and the supervisors. From left: Professor Sven Gudmund Hinderaker (Acting Dean), Fekadu Massebo, Dr Silas Majambere (First opponent), Professor Tehmina Mustafa from UiB, Professor Bernt Lindtjørn (supervisor), Dr Tarekegn Abeku (Second opponent) and Ass Professor Meshesha Balkew (supervisor) from Addis Ababa University.

New PhD: Malaria vectors in southern Ethiopia

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fekadu-cover-pageMassebo F. Malaria vectors in southern Ethiopia. Some challenges and opportunities for vector control. PhD. University of Bergen, 2017. Bergen

Background: Malaria is a public health problem in Ethiopia, where more than 60% of the population lives in risky areas. Since 2005, malaria-related sicknesses and deaths have substantially decreased in the country, mainly due to the increasing coverage of vector control interventions and chemotherapy. On the other hand, resistance to most public health insecticides is widely spreading among the populations of the principal malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis. Therefore, assessing the susceptibility status of local malaria vectors is an essential activity to improve the effectiveness of the interventions, by introducing the appropriate insecticide resistance management strategies. There are also substantial gaps in knowledge regarding the entomological inoculation rate (EIR), which is an indicator of the intensity of malaria transmission, and are used to assess the impact of vector control interventions. Understanding the species composition, feeding and resting behaviours, parity rate, as well as human biting and sporozoite rates, are all important in evaluating the effectiveness of interventions and planning for supplementary vector control tools. Moreover, improving housing, such as screen doors and windows, and closing openings on walls and eaves, might reduce the entry of malaria vectors and provide protection from infectious bites of malaria vectors.

Objective: The study was carried out to help assess the species composition, age structure, feeding patterns, sporozoite infection rate, entomological inoculation rate and insecticide susceptibility status of An. arabiensis, and evaluate the impact of screened houses on its indoor density.

Methods: The study was done in the Chano Mille Kebele in southwestern Ethiopia. The longitudinal entomological study was conducted from May 2009-April 2010, whereas the house screening intervention was done between April-November 2011. Thirty houses (10 houses for each collection method) were randomly selected for biweekly Anopheles mosquito sampling. The Anopheles mosquitoes were collected by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps, pyrethrum spray catches (PSC) and from artificial pit shelters by aspirating. Enzyme-linked-immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to analyse the blood meal origins and circumsporozoite proteins. The EIR of P. falciparum and P. vivax of An. arabiensis was calculated by multiplying the sporozoite and human biting rates from CDC light traps and PSC collections.

A randomized control trial was conducted to assess the impact of screening windows and doors with wire mesh, and closing openings on eaves and walls by mud on the indoor density of An. arabiensis. Baseline mosquito data was gathered biweekly from 40 houses by CDC light traps in March and April 2011 to randomize houses into both control and intervention groups. The windows and doors of 20 houses were screened by mosquito-proof wire mesh, and openings on the walls and eaves were closed by mud. The rest of the 20 houses were assigned to the control group. Mosquitoes were collected biweekly in October and November 2011 from both the control and intervention houses.

Results: Anopheles species, comprised of An. arabiensis, An. marshalli, An. garnhami, An. funestus group, An. pharoensis, An. tenebrosus, An. rhodensiensis, An. flavicosta, An. longipalpis, An. daniculicus, An. pretoriensis, An. chrysti, An. moucheti, An. distinctus and An. zeimanni, were documented in the area. Anopheles arabiensis was by far the most dominant species.

The overall human blood index (HBI) of An. arabiensis, including the mixed blood meals, was 44%, whereas the bovine blood index (BBI), including mixed blood meals, was 69%. The majority of An. arabiensis (65%) from the indoor-resting collection had bovine blood meal, which was unexpected. The higher proportion (75%) of indoor host-seeking An. arabiensis collected by CDC light traps had contact with humans. Only 13% An. arabiensis from pit shelters had human blood meal, while 68% had bovine blood meal. Anopheles arabiensis showed a consistently higher feeding pattern on cattle than on humans, regardless of collection sites and the high number of the human population. The human and bovine feeding patterns of An. arabiensis showed little change due to the number of cattle to human ratio of each household. Anopheles marshalli and An. garnhami showed similar feeding patterns.

Anopheles arabiensis was highly resistant to four pyrethroid insecticides tested (lambdacyhalothrin, cyfluthrin, alphacypermethrin and deltamethrin) and DDT, with a maximum mortality rate of 56% due to lambdacyhalothrin and a minimum of 10% due to DDT.

The circumsporozoite protein ELISA test revealed 11 P. falciparum infections out of 14 sporozoite positive An. arabiensis (the other three were P. vivax), thereby confirming that this species is the principal vector of P. falciparum and P. vivax parasites. The P. falciparum sporozoite rate of An. arabiensis was 0.32% for CDC light traps, 0.28% for pit shelters and 0.23% for PSCs. The overall estimated annual P. falciparum EIR of An. arabiensis from CDC light traps was 17.1 infectious bites/person/year (ib/p/y), but it varied between houses, from a 0 EIR in 60% of houses to 73.2 in a house close to the major breeding site. Hence, those houses nearest to the mosquito breeding sites had a higher risk of exposure to infectious bites. The P. falciparum EIR of An. arabiensis was 2.4 in the dry season and 14.7 in the wet season, indicating 6.1-fold more infectious bites in the wet- than in the dry season. The P. falciparum and P. vivax EIR of An. arabiensis from PSC was 0.1ib/p/y, while the P. vivax EIR of An. arabiensis from CDC light traps was 2.41ib/p/y.

The screening of doors and windows with wire mesh, and closing the openings on eaves and walls by mud, significantly reduced the indoor density of host-seeking An. arabiensis by 40%. The intervention was cheap, and can be incorporated into malaria vector control programmes by local communities.

Conclusion: Anopheles arabiensis showed a consistently higher feeding pattern on cattle than on humans regardless of collection sites and the high number of human population. It was the most abundant and the principal vector of P. falciparum and P. vivax, while An. marshalli and An. garnhami were the second and third most abundant species, but neither of them was positive for CSPs. The transmission of malaria is heterogeneous; those houses nearest to the mosquito breeding sites (hot spots) had a higher risk of exposure to the infectious bites of An. arabiensis. Anopheles arabiensis was resistant to pyrethroid insecticides, the only class of insecticides recommended for LLINs treatment; as a result, there should be an action programme to manage insecticide resistance. Finally, supplementary methods of vector control, such as the screening of houses, could be included to help improve malaria control in the area based on the principle of integrated vector management.

The thesis can be downloaded here.

Collecting malaria mosquitoes

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Kenea O, Balkew M, Tekie H, Gebre-Michael T, Deressa W, Loha E, Lindtjørn B, Overgaard HJ: Comparison of two adult mosquito sampling methods with human landing catches in south-central Ethiopia. Malaria Journal 2017, 16. 

Background  The human landing catch (HLC) is the standard reference method for measuring human exposure to mosquito bites. However, HLC is labour-intensive, exposes collectors to infectious mosquito bites and is subjected to collector bias. These necessitate local calibration and application of alternative methods. This study was undertaken to determine the relative sampling efficiency (RSE) of light traps with or without yeast-produced carbon dioxide bait vs. HLC in south-central Ethiopia.

Methods  The experiment was conducted for 39 nights in a 3 × 3 Latin square randomized design with Anopheles arabiensis as the target species in the period between July and November 2014 in Edo Kontola village, south-central Ethiopia. Center for Disease Control and Prevention light trap catches (LTC) and yeast-generated carbon dioxide-baited light trap catches (CB-LTC) were each evaluated against HLC. The total nightly mosquito catches for each Anopheles species in either method was compared with HLC by Pearson correlation and simple linear regression analysis on log-transformed [log10(x + 1)] values. To test if the RSE of each alternative method was affected by mosquito density, the ratio of the number of mosquitoes in each method to the number of mosquitoes in HLC was plotted against the average mosquito abundance.

Results  Overall, 7606 Anopheles females were collected by the three sampling methods. Among these 5228 (68.7%) were Anopheles ziemanni, 1153 (15.2%) An. arabiensis, 883 (11.6%) Anopheles funestus s.l., and 342 (4.5%) Anopheles pharoensis. HLC yielded 3392 (44.6%), CB-LTC 2150 (28.3%), and LTC 2064 (27.1%) Anopheles females. The RSEs of LTC and HLC for An. arabiensis were significantly correlated (p < 0.001) and density independent (p = 0.65). However, for outdoor collection of the same species, RSEs of LTC and CB-LTC were density dependent (p < 0.001). It was estimated that on average, indoor LTC and CB-LTC each caught 0.35 and 0.44 times that of indoor HLC for An. arabiensis respectively.

Conclusions  Results showed that HLC was the most efficient method for sampling An. arabiensis. LTC can be used for large-scale indoor An. arabiensis surveillance and monitoring when it is difficult to use HLC. CB-LTC does not substantially improve sampling of this major vector compared to LTC in this setting.

Presentation at 65th Annual meeting of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene

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Impact of combining Indoor Residual Spraying and Long-Lasting Insecticidal Nets on Anopheles arabiensis in Ethiopia: Preliminary findings of a randomized controlled trial

Oljira Kenea, Meshesha Balkew, Habte Tekie, Teshome Gebre-Michael, Wakgari Deressa, Eskindir Loha, Hans J. Overgaard, Bernt Lindtjørn

Abstract

The current malaria vector control interventions, indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) have been used in combination in sub-Saharan Africa with inconclusive evidence that the combined intervention is more effective than either IRS or LLINs alone. In Ethiopia, both interventions target Anopheles arabiensis, the sole primary malaria vector. This study compared the impact of combining IRS and LLINs with either intervention alone in south-central Ethiopia. Villages were randomly allocated to four study arms: IRS + LLIN, IRS, LLIN, and control. LLINs (PermaNet 2.0) were provided free of charge. IRS with propoxur was applied before the main malaria transmission season in 2014 and 2015. Adult mosquitoes were collected in randomly selected villages in each arm using CDC light trap catch (LTC) set close to a sleeping person, pyrethrum spray catch (PSC), and artificial pit shelter (PIT), for measuring host-seeking density (HSD), indoor resting density (IRD), and outdoor resting density (ORD). Human landing catch (HLC) was performed in selected villages to monitor An. arabiensis biting behaviors. Mean densities were compared using incidence rate ratio (IRR) calculated by negative binomial regression. A total of 1786 female anophelines of four species was collected of which An. arabiensis (n=574) was highest in the control arm (51.4%) followed by LLIN (31.5%), IRS (9.2%), and IRS+LLIN (7.9%). The mean HSD of An. arabiensis in the IRS+LLIN arm was similar to either the IRS arm (0.03 vs. 0.03/ house/LTC/night) or the LLIN arm (0.03 vs. 0.10/house/LTC/night, p=0.07) and so was the difference in IRD and ORD between the IRS and LLIN compared to the IRS arm. However, both IRD and ORD were higher in LLIN compared to IRS+LLIN (p < 0.001 for indoors). In all study arms, An. arabiensis was actively biting indoors and outdoors throughout the night with an early night biting peak before the local people retire to bed. IRS+LLIN compared to IRS had equal powerful impact on resting density of An. arabiensis, but LLIN had the least impact.

Malaria control or elimination?

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Malaria controlAbout ten years ago, the global health community was cautious about aiming at malaria eradication. The experiences from the 1960s and 1970s left some severe scars on such campaigns. Recently, the Gates Foundation has led the shift in approach and mobilised others to join efforts to end the disease. However, while malaria is preventable and treatable, eradication requires new tools (see figure).

A good vaccine would be highest on the agenda. Although vaccine trials show promising results, the vaccine efficacy is unfortunately too low to eradicate the disease.

Our recent study on the prevention of malaria in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia also shows some of the limited effects of insecticide-treated bed nets. In addition, we have observed that many of the mosquito bites take place at times when people do not use their bed nets. Our mosquito studies show that indoor residual spraying with insecticides can reduce the density of mosquitoes both inside the houses as well as outside the houses. Furthermore, a recent and unpublished study from south-west Ethiopia supporter previous findings that improving housing can reduce the entomological inoculation rates, which is a measure on how dangerous the mosquitoes are in transmitting malaria.

We, therefore, also support that several new tools are required. So, maybe the time is right to assess the combination of many interventions that would include active case finding, treatment, insecticide treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying, improved housing, and other vector control measures; such as reducing the out-door density of malaria mosquitoes.

Human-biting activities of Anopheles species in Ethiopia

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Kenea O, Balkew M, Tekie H, Gebre-Michael T, Deressa W, Loha E, Lindtjørn B, Overgaard HJ: Human-biting activities of Anopheles species in south-central Ethiopia. Parasites & vectors 2016, 9(1):1-12.

Abstract

Background    Indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) are the key malaria vector control interventions in Ethiopia. The success of these interventions rely on their efficacy to repel or kill indoor feeding and resting mosquitoes. This study was undertaken to monitor human-biting patterns of Anopheles species in south-central Ethiopia.

Methods   Human-biting patterns of anophelines were monitored for 40 nights in three houses using human landing catches (HLC) both indoors and outdoors between July and November 2014, in Edo Kontola village, south-central Ethiopia. This time coincides with the major malaria transmission season in Ethiopia, which is usually between September and November. Adult mosquitoes were collected from 19:00 to 06:00 h and identified to species. Comparisons of HLC data were done using incidence rate ratio (IRR) calculated by negative binomial regression. The nocturnal biting activities of each Anopheles species was expressed as mean number of mosquitoes landing per person per hour. To assess malaria infections in Anopheles mosquitoes the presence of Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax circumsporozoite proteins (CSP) were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results   Altogether 3,408 adult female anophelines were collected, 2,610 (76.6 %) outdoors and 798 (23.4 %) indoors. Anopheles zeimanni was the predominant species (66.5 %) followed by An. arabiensis (24.8 %), An. pharoensis (6.8 %) and An. funestus (s.l.) (1.8 %).

The overall mean anopheline density was 3.3 times higher outdoors than indoors (65.3 vs19.9/person/night, IRR: 3.3, 95 % CI: 1.1–5.1, P = 0.001). The mean density of An. zeimanni, An. pharoensis and An. funestus (s.l.) collected outdoors was significantly higher than indoors for each species (P < 0.05). However, the mean An. arabiensis density outdoors was similar to that indoors (11.8 vs 9.4/person/night, IRR: 1.3, 95 % CI: 0.8–1.9, P = 0.335). The mean hourly human-biting density of An. arabiensis was greater outdoors than indoors and peaked between 21:00 and 22:00 h. However, An. arabiensis parous population showed high indoor man biting activities during bedtimes (22:00 to 05:00 h) when the local people were indoor and potentially protected by IRS and LLINs. All mosquito samples tested for CSP antigen were found negative to malaria parasites.

Conclusions   Results show much greater mosquito human-biting activities occurring outdoors than indoors and during early parts of the night, implying higher outdoor malaria transmission potential in the area. However, high bedtime (22:00 to 05:00 h) indoor biting activities of parous An. arabiensissuggest high potential intervention impact of IRS and LLINs on indoor malaria transmission.

Smallpox and eliminating other diseases

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 Dr. Donald A. Henderson, who led the World Health Organization’s war on smallpox, administering a smallpox vaccination in Ethiopia, around 1972. The last known case was in 1977. (Photo WHO)

 

 

Dr. Donald A. Henderson was an American physician who coordinated the World Health Organisation’s efforts to eradicate smallpox. After smallpox had been declared eradicated in 1980, he returned to the US, and became the Dean of what is now the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Dr. Donald A. Henderson died this month and will be remembered as a great scientist and public health physician.

As a child in late 1950s I remember a smallpox epidemic in Dilla in Ethiopia. I was so fortunate to have met this remarkable man, and listen to a talk he had at WHO in Geneva. Because of the success in eradicating smallpox, many believe that it also should be possible to eliminate other diseases such as poliomyelitis, Guinea worm, measles, or even malaria. I find it interesting to read that Dr Henderson was rather skeptical about these new eradication initiatives. Both the characteristics of the diseases, as well as the efforts put into getting rid of the diseases differed from what was the strategy to eradicate smallpox.

The poor use bed nets less for malaria protection

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Hailu A, Lindtjørn B, Deressa W, Gari T, Loha E, Robberstad B. Equity in long-lasting insecticidal nets and indoor residual spraying for malaria prevention in a rural South Central Ethiopia. Malaria Journal 2016; 15(1): 1-11.

Background: While recognizing the recent achievement in the global fight against malaria, the disease remains a challenge to health systems in low-income countries. Beyond widespread consensuses about prioritizing malaria prevention, little is known about the prevailing status of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) across different levels of wealth strata. The aim of this study was to evaluate the socioeconomic related dimension of inequalities in malaria prevention interventions.

Methods: This study was conducted in July–August 2014 in Adami Tullu district in the South-central Ethiopia, among 6069 households. A cross-sectional data were collected on household characteristics, LLIN ownership and IRS coverage. Principal component analysis technique was used for ranking households based on socioeconomic position. The inequality was measured using concentration indices and concentration curve. Decomposition method was employed in order to quantify the percentage contribution of each socioeconomic related variable on the overall inequality.

Results: The proportion of households with at least one LLIN was 11.6 % and IRS coverage was 72.5 %. The Erreygers normalized concentration index was 0.0627 for LLIN and 0.0383 for IRS. Inequality in LLIN ownership was mainly associated with difference in housing situation, household size and access to mass-media and telecommunication service.

Conclusion: Coverage of LLIN was low and significant more likely to be owned by the rich households, whereas houses were sprayed equitably. The current mass free distribution of LLINs should be followed by periodic refill based on continuous monitoring data.

Malaria in the Rift Valley in Ethiopia

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Gari T, Kenea O, Loha E, Deressa W, Hailu A, Balkew M, Gebre-Michael T, Robberstad B, Overgaard HJ, Lindtjørn B: Malaria incidence and entomological findings in an area targeted for a cluster-randomized controlled trial to prevent malaria in Ethiopia: results from a pilot study. Malaria Journal 2016, 15.

Background  This study was part of the work to prepare for a cluster-randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effect of combining indoor residual spraying and long-lasting insecticidal nets on malaria incidence. A pilot study was done to estimate the variations of malaria incidence among villages, combined with entomological collections and an assessment of susceptibility to insecticides in malaria vectors.

Methods  A cohort of 5309 residents from four kebeles (the lowest government administrative unit) in 996 households was followed from August to December 2013 in south-central Ethiopia. Blood samples were collected by a finger prick for a microscopic examination of malaria infections. A multilevel mixed effect model was applied to measure the predictors of malaria episode. Adult mosquitoes were collected using light traps set indoors close to a sleeping person, pyrethrum spray sheet catches and artificial outdoor pit shelters. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to detect the sources of mosquito blood meals, while mosquito longevity was estimated based on parity. The World Health Organization’s tube bioassay test was used to assess the insecticide susceptibility status of malaria vectors to pyrethroids and carbamates.

Results  The average incidence of malaria episode was 4.6 per 10,000 person weeks of observation. The age group from 5 to 14 years (IRR = 2.7; 95 % CI 1.1–6.6) and kebeles near a lake or river (IRR = 14.2, 95 % CI 3.1–64) were significantly associated with malaria episode. Only 271 (27.3 %) of the households owned insecticide-treated nets. Of 232 adult Anophelesmosquitoes collected, Anopheles arabiensis (71.1 %) was the predominant species. The average longevity of An. arabiensiswas 14 days (range: 7–25 human blood index days). The overall human blood index (0.69) for An. arabiensis was higher than the bovine blood index (0.38). Statistically significant differences in Anopheline mosquitoes abundance were observed between the kebeles (P = 0.001). Anopheles arabiensis was susceptible to propoxur, but resistant to pyrethroids. However, An. pharoensis was susceptible to all pyrethroids and carbamates tested.

Conclusions  This study showed a high variation in malaria incidence and Anopheles between kebeles. The observed susceptibility of the malaria vectors to propoxur warrants using this insecticide for indoor residual spraying, and the results from this study will be used as a baseline for the trial.