Category Archives: Health system

Surgeons and civic-professionalism

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ResearchBlogging.orgSurgery is often the only solution to prevent disabilities and death from conditions resulting from pregnancy related complications, surgical conditions (example acute abdomen), infections, traffic accidents, falls, burns, disasters, domestic violence, and congenital defects.

Until recently, surgery was neglected as a developing country public health issue. Health officials, especially in the World Health organization and in major international Non-Governmental Organizations often viewed it as expensive and unnecessary tertiary care needing advanced equipment and expertise.

Recently, surgery is beginning to be seen as an integral part of primary health care. Often it is a preventive and a cost-effective way of dealing with many health challenges in poor countries. WHO now recommends that basic surgical services should be available in district hospitals, while more specialised surgery is performed at tertiary level hospitals.

A recent article in The Lancet (Funk, Weiser et al. 2010) show there are less than 1 surgical theatre per 100.000 people in Africa (14 times less than in Europe). In addition, there are too few surgeons, and 95% of these surgeons work in urban areas.

Addressing the inequities in access to essential surgery, an Editorial in the Lancet also underlined the need for improved professionalism and leadership among surgeons. The civic-professionalism should be addressed among surgeons in speaking for equity at local, national and global levels. (Editor 2010)

Death and disability in the most vulnerable groups (namely, women and children) are easily prevented or corrected by surgery. Most essential and surgical interventions can be delivered at the first referral level health institution (rural or district hospital, health centre, primary healthcare institutions) provided the health care staff know few basic skills and their institution have some basic equipment.

Priorities include work to:

• strengthen capacity to deliver effective emergency surgical care at the first referral level facility, and thus working towards achieving the WHO Millennium Development Goal 5 (reducing maternal deaths).

• improve the quality of care through safe and proper use of emergency and essential surgical procedures

• strengthen existing training and education programmes in safety of essential procedures

There are very few surgeons in South Ethiopia. We therefore train Non-Clinical Physicians to do essential obstetrics and surgery. Currently, this programme includes twelve institutions covering about 3 million people.

Editor (2010). “What is the point of surgery?” Lancet 376(9746): 1025.

Funk, L., Weiser, T., Berry, W., Lipsitz, S., Merry, A., Enright, A., Wilson, I., Dziekan, G., & Gawande, A. (2010). Global operating theatre distribution and pulse oximetry supply: an estimation from reported data The Lancet, 376 (9746), 1055-1061 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60392-3

Missing AIDS Patients

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ResearchBlogging.orgIt is important for HIV infected patients to take their drugs regularly. Interruptions in treatment lead to viral strains that are resistant to the cheapest medications, and to higher rates of illness and death. Unfortunately, many AIDS patients do not come for their antiretroviral medications. Such patients are labelled as “lost to follow-up.”

During the early years of antiretroviral treatment (ART) drug distribution in Africa, researchers reported high rates of adherence to treatment, often as high as in Europe or the United States. At the same time, studies showed higher early mortality rates among patients treated with antiretroviral drugs in settings with limited resources. A reason for the high death rates was late presentation of patients to care.

In a recent review of 2191 adult HIV patients in south Ethiopia, we show that patients now start to present at earlier stages of their illness, and death has decreased among adult HIV patients. Early treatment start contributed to improved survival (Mulissa, Jerene and Lindtjørn, 2010).

Unfortunately, 25 per cent were lost before that started treatment. This means they were diagnosed, but did not return for treatment, and this have increased during the recent years. We also found that 15% per cent of those who start treatment were lost to follow up. 40% of the latter group had died, and 20% had started treatment in another institution.

Some ART programmes in Africa are experimenting with different programmes to reduce loss to follow-up. Some organizations offer a two- or three-month supply of medication for each clinic visit, others deliver drugs to patients’ homes, and some have tried to refund patients for transport costs. None of these efforts have been evaluated.

Mulissa, Z., Jerene, D., & Lindtjørn, B. (2010). Patients Present Earlier and Survival Has Improved, but Pre-ART Attrition Is High in a Six-Year HIV Cohort Data from Ethiopia PLoS ONE, 5 (10) DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013268

Is Ethiopia reaching the development millennium goals (MDG)?

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ResearchBlogging.org

Although Ethiopia has shown an impressive economic growth over the last seven years, one-third of its population remains poor. To achieve the MDG, an annual economic growth of 7 % is needed, and in the last years the growth has exceeded this critical figure.

A recent conference in Cape Town evaluated the performance of different countries, including Ethiopia, on achieving the MGD goals 1. The country is making some progress on indicators such as vaccination coverage and malaria control. Child mortality rates are declining, and HIV care is improving. Unfortunately, only 11% of the population have good access to emergency obstetric care, and the levels of stunting, an indicator of chronic malnutrition and poverty, is not declining. Tuberculosis case detection rates remain low.

One way to compare access to health services is to use the coverage index. The index uses some indicators for eight reproductive, maternal, newborn and child interventions. They include family planning, maternal and newborn health (at least one antenatal visit and skilled attendant at delivery), immunisations (measles, BCG and DPT3) and curative childcare (diarrhoea and pneumonia management: oral rehydration and continued feeding and care seeking for pneumonia). Unfortunately, there is still a 80% health coverage gap for most Ethiopians, and for the more wealthy part of the population, the coverage gap is still 60%, one of the worst in Africa.

Currently a new health sector plan is being approved. Although the details of this plan remains unknown to the public, the vision of the government is to transform Ethiopia to become a middle-income country in a few years after the end MDG 2015. The most concrete step that I have heard about is to improve access to essential health services by setting up primary hospitals to serve a population of 60 – 100.000 people . Each primary hospitals shall provide emergency surgical services focusing on Comprehensive Emergency Obstetric Care. Improved access and improved infrastructure would in theory enable the government to reduce maternal deaths.

Full report:

1. WHO, UNICEF. Countdown to 2015 decade report (2000–2010): taking stock of maternal, newborn and child survival. Geneva: WHO and UNICEF; 2010.

Bhutta ZA, Chopra M, Axelson H, Berman P, Boerma T, Bryce J, Bustreo F, Cavagnero E, Cometto G, Daelmans B, de Francisco A, Fogstad H, Gupta N, Laski L, Lawn J, Maliqi B, Mason E, Pitt C, Requejo J, Starrs A, Victora CG, & Wardlaw T (2010). Countdown to 2015 decade report (2000-10): taking stock of maternal, newborn, and child survival. Lancet, 375 (9730), 2032-44 PMID: 20569843

Maternal Mortality in Ethiopia

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In a special issue of the Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, eight papers discuss important topics such as maternal mortality trends, infrastructure and resources available for maternal health, and maternal health care use.

The articles show there have been improvements in antenatal care coverage and Tetanus Toxoid immunization. Unfortunately, delivery by skilled attendants and post-natal care coverage remain low. Ethiopia is making little progress in the indicator (skilled attendance at birth) that is considered to be the most important predictor of maternal mortality.

One of the papers discusses how to interpret trend data on maternal mortality ratio. Comparing the results of 2000 and 2005 Ethiopian Demographic Health Survey show there appears to be a decline in maternal mortality. However, as the overlaps in the 95% confidence intervals overlap, we cannot be certain about the decline.

Specialists and health care for the poor

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I recently had a long chat with young general practitioners in south Ethiopia. «Our aim is to become specialist doctors», they said. I replied that most specialists do not return to the rural areas they come from and where they first intended to work in. Their answer was there was a need for specialist in the large city hospitals, and after having endured hardship as General Practitioners and with established families, they found it natural not to return to the rural and poor South Ethiopia.

And the tendency is that general specialists in fields as internal medicine and surgery want to continue training and become subspecialists.

A recent Naturejobs paper discusses the career of PhD graduates. Some PhD graduates end up doing very specific tasks, often in academic institutions. However, through their PhD training they gain valuable general skills that qualify them for more general careers. Industry usually wants highly skilled and trained people with a flexible attitude. The PhD researcher who insists on limiting their work to a narrow area of research specialisation sometimes end as «Research Geek».

In research, as in practical medicine, most of the work is routine, and deals with everyday problems. Specialist gain general skills during their training that they could and should use for the benefit of patients and health problems beyond their narrow specialisation.

A few days ago I was working at the remote Saula Hospital in South-west Ethiopia. During the rounds in the inn-patient ward I realised that many of the seriously sick patients had not been diagnosed properly. A patient with pyomyositis (multiple abscesses) had an underlying leukaemia. A patient with grossly swollen breasts did not have a breast disease, but a severe heart failure. A three-year-old child with fast breathing had been treated for pneumonia, but had severe falciparum malaria infection.

Poor diagnostic work leads to poor treatment and care, and is probably the reason only 10 patients were admitted to Saula Hospital from a population of 800.000 people in its catchment area. Hospitals as Saula needs specialists, but of a kind that is willing to go beyond their own specialisation.

Unfortunately, the international trend, now also affecting developing countries, is to increase specialisation and thus leave a large part of the work to nurses, non-physician clinicians, and to newly educated doctors doing compulsory services in remote hospitals.

Do NGOs corrupt health institutions?

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Many international organizations and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) support health work in developing countries. Often, their work is to train staff to get necessary skills, and thus improve health services. Each NGO have their specific goals, and wish these tasks to be carried out at institution. Good examples that have helped many patients include HIV work, reproductive health, and support to specialists to carry out operations at rural institutions.

Although the NGOs do this with the best of intentions, their support is often misused, and unfortunately weakens institutional sustainability and equity.

Some negative examples from south Ethiopia include:

  1. A NGO supports that patients with diseases such cleft lips are operated at district hospitals. The organizations provide the local staff with good training to carry out such treatment. Many patients receive good treatment. Unfortunately, we often note after the early campaigns, operations are not done between campaigns as planned. The NGO pays extra for each operation to the staff during campaigns, but not for operations done between campaigns. This often leads to staff only operating when they receive extra payment. This is an example of “misuse of entrusted power for private gain” (Transparency international definition of corruption).
  2. UN organizations and NGOs often organize training seminars and workshops. The participants might receive daily allowances up to half of their monthly salaries. Unfortunately, some participants are not even qualified to carry out the intended work. We know of examples when managers, without medical training, took part in course on how to treat drug resistant tuberculosis. And some staff take part in courses to resuscitate neonates, but never work in a delivery ward. Again, examples of “misuse of entrusted power for private gain”.

I believe it is time for NGOs and International organizations to look into the side effects of their massive support to health institutions. A proper question is: Are there alternative ways to support institutions with much needed training, and at the same time not tempting the institutions and individuals to take part in corruption?

Most international organizations and NGOs have increased sustainability and equity as part of their visions. If sustainability and equity is a goal for such organization, new ways to support the institutions should be sought.

Reducing corruption at health institutions

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ResearchBlogging.orgCorruption depletes resources from the health institutions such as hospitals and health centres. For example, countries with a high corruption index have higher child mortality rates. How can health institutions reduce corruption, and increase available resources for patient treatment?

In a good review article, Taryn Vian (2007) defines what corruption at health institutions is, explains why it reduces necessary and scarce resources, and how corruption can be reduced. Vian outlines the mechanisms on how managers rationalize social norms, moral or ethical beliefs, attitudes and personalities to their own benefit. Weak accountability, lack of citizen voice and transparency turn out to be opportunities for abuse. And, poor wages and pressures from clients become pressures for misuse.

Unfortunately, many health institutions have weak management, inadequate accounting, and there are few lawyers to follow up financial misuse at health institutions. However, much can be done to reduce corruption. In our work in Ethiopia we try to focus on the following points as part of a ways to ensure sustainable health institutions.

  1. Each institution needs good and sound accounting carried out by trained staff. The institution should produce regular and acceptable financial reports
  2. Each institution must simplify the cash collection procedures, and internal auditors must daily check the cash collection.
  3. The institutional board should routinely review that purchases are done as wanted by the government
  4. Institutions should regularly be supervised and checked by public licensing authorities
  5. Each institutions should keep an absentee registry, and thus assure that workers do not collect salaries and work at other places
  6. Each institution needs yearly financial audits. As health institutions collect patient fees, institutions are accountable to the public. Therefore both public and certified auditing institutions should audit the finances of health institutions.

During the past years we have seen hospitals worsen because of changes of staff and a lack of control mechanisms. External support to health institutions in many developing countries should be accompanied with a need for sound management, accounting and auditing practices.

Vian, T. (2007). Review of corruption in the health sector: theory, methods and interventions Health Policy and Planning, 23 (2), 83-94 DOI: 10.1093/heapol/czm048

Corruption at health institution

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ResearchBlogging.orgCorruption at health institution is a concern in all countries, but it is especially in developing countries where public resources are already scarce.

Countries with high indices of corruption have for example higher rates of infant mortality.

A recent World Bank report from Ethiopia (Lindelow and Serneels 2006) report on “pilfering drugs and materials, informal health care provision and illicit charging, and corruption” at health institutions in Ethiopia. The authors focus on “weak accountability mechanisms and the erosion of professional norms in the health sector” as a main causes of corruption.

Fighting corruption is important because corruption reduces the resources available for health. Corruption also lowers the quality, equity and effectiveness of health care services, and it decreases the volume and increases the cost of provided services. Corruption also discourages people to use and pay for health services.

Some examples of corruption in health care (from Vian 2002):

  • During construction and rehabilitation of health institutions: bribes, kickbacks and political considerations influence the contracting work, and contractors fail to perform and are not held accountable
  • Buying equipment, supplies, and drugs: bribes, kickbacks, and political considerations influence specifications and winners of bids, bid rigging during procurement, lack of incentives to choose low cost and high-quality suppliers. Suppliers might fail to deliver and are not held accountable
  • Distribution and use of drugs and supplies in service delivery: Theft (for personal use) or diversion (for resale to private institutions) of drugs and supplies at storage and distribution points. It also includes sale of drugs or supplies that were supposed to be free
  • Education of health professionals: bribes to gain place in medical school or other pre-service training, bribes to obtain passing grades, and political influence, nepotism in selection of candidates for training opportunities

Preventing abuse and reducing corruption is important to increase resources available for health, and thus to improve the health status of the population.

In our health work in Ethiopia we only work with institutions that focus of transparent management procedures, and have proper accounting and perform regular external financial audit. In our experience it is also important that public auditing institutions (“Office of general audit”) regularly evaluate health institutions.

References:

Lindelow, M., & Serneels, P. (2006). The performance of health workers in Ethiopia: Results from qualitative research Social Science & Medicine, 62 (9), 2225-2235 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.10.015

Vian T. 2002. Corruption and the Health Sector. http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance/publications/ac/sector/health.doc

Malaria mortality declines in Ethiopia

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ResearchBlogging.org BBC World Service citing the Global Fund (Early Evidence of Sustainable Impact on Malaria) reported yesterday that malaria mortality declined by almost 50% in Ethiopia. The Global fund report states a 54% decline in malaria cases and 48% decline in malaria deaths.

Are such figures true? Working on malaria research projects in south Ethiopia I can confirm that fewer malaria patients are admitted to health centres and hospitals. Our preliminary data show that people use bed nets, community health workers diagnose and treat malaria cases, and malaria deaths do not occur as often as previously.

But, we have learned that malaria is a focal disease. In our research on malaria and climate we observe the last years have been dry in large parts of south Ethiopia. After the rains we first see increases in the mosquito densities followed by increases in malaria cases. There are more mosquitoes and cases after the heavy rains in early 2010, compared with 2009. Although we believe that malaria control efforts are effective, we need more time to get a full picture on the links between interventions, malaria sickness and death and naturally occurring variations.

Recent demographic data show decline in under-five mortality rates in Ethiopia from 204 to 123 per 1000 live births between 1990 and 2005. Ethiopia shows good progress was observed in controlling HIV/AIDS and malaria, but not for tuberculosis (Otten M et al, 2009; Accorsi S et al, 2009). Although a downward trend was observed in the maternal mortality ratio, it is too early to reach any firm conclusion about the possibility of achieving MDG5 because of sampling variability (Hogan M et al, 2010).

The good achievements in controlling malaria and increasing immunisation coverage show that scheduled routine interventions is well handled by the current health care system. However, interventions that rely on clinical services near to households with 24h availability, such as skilled care at birth, are weak. With the good achievements on malaria and immunization coverage, Ethiopia now needs to strengthen health institutions such as hospitals and health centres.

Otten, M., Aregawi, M., Were, W., Karema, C., Medin, A., Jima, D., Kebede, W., Gausi, K., Komatsu, R., Korenromp, E., Low-Beer, D., & Grabowsky, M. (2009). Initial evidence of reduction of malaria cases and deaths in Rwanda and Ethiopia due to rapid scale-up of malaria prevention and treatment Malaria Journal, 8 (1) DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-8-14

Accorsi, S., Bilal, N., Farese, P., & Racalbuto, V. (2010). Countdown to 2015: comparing progress towards the achievement of the health Millennium Development Goals in Ethiopia and other sub-Saharan African countries Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 104 (5), 336-342 DOI: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2009.12.009

Hogan, M., Foreman, K., Naghavi, M., Ahn, S., Wang, M., Makela, S., Lopez, A., Lozano, R., & Murray, C. (2010). Maternal mortality for 181 countries, 1980–2008: a systematic analysis of progress towards Millennium Development Goal 5 The Lancet DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60518-1

Active case-finding to improve tuberculosis control.

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Is active case finding necessary to control tuberculosis in developing countries?

Tuberculosis is one of the world’s leading causes of death and disease. Despite effective treatment, tuberculosis still results in several million deaths each year. Reducing the burden of global TB disease is a part the Millennium Development Goals. Earlier, health authorities thought that DOTS (Direct Observed Treatment, Short course) would control tuberculosis. However, we now recognize that DOTS alone is unable of reducing TB incidence in high endemic countries.

Active case finding is to find, diagnose, and treat and follow up tuberculosis patients in the local communities.

To find out the efficacy of community-based case finding, we did a community randomized trial and cost-effectiveness analysis in south Ethiopia. The trial Ethiopia aimed to evaluate if community health workers could improved smear-positive case detection and treatment success rates (Datiko and Lindtjørn, 2009 and Datiko and Lindtjørn, 2010).

The study showed that involving of health extension workers (HEWs) in sputum collection and treatment improved smear-positive case detection and treatment success rate, possibly because of an improved service access. This finding has policy implications and could be applied in settings with low health service coverage and a shortage of health workers.

Recently, National TB Control Programme in Ethiopia started to decentralize case finding and treatment to local communities (in Ethiopia called kebeles) using community based-treatment by health extension workers.

We plan to follow up our earlier studies and develop a model for community DOTS in rural Ethiopia. We aim to improve the community-based implementation of case finding and treatment of TB in rural settings of southern Ethiopia. This will try to develop community-based tuberculosis registries, and registries of patients with symptoms suggestive of tuberculosis.  Through this work we aim to see if case finding and treatment outcomes can be improved on a larger scale and involving larger populations

Datiko, D., & Lindtjørn, B. (2009). Health Extension Workers Improve Tuberculosis Case Detection and Treatment Success in Southern Ethiopia: A Community Randomized Trial PLoS ONE, 4 (5) DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005443

Datiko, D., & Lindtjørn, B. (2010). Cost and Cost-Effectiveness of Treating Smear-Positive Tuberculosis by Health Extension Workers in Ethiopia: An Ancillary Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Community Randomized Trial PLoS ONE, 5 (2) DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009158